Reusable initiators for synthesizing nucleic acids

ABSTRACT

The invention provides improved methods for synthesizing polynucleotides, such as DNA and RNA, using renewable initiators coupled to a solid support. Using the methods of the invention, specific sequences of polynucleotides can be synthesized de novo, base by base, in an aqueous environment, without the use of a nucleic acid template.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a Continuation-in-Part of U.S. Non-Provisionalpatent application Ser. No. 14/829,269, filed Aug. 18, 2015, now issuedas U.S. Pat. No. 9,279,149, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S.Non-provisional patent application Ser. No. 14/459,014, filed Aug. 13,2014, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Non-provisional patentapplication Ser. No. 14/056,687, filed Oct. 17, 2013, now issued as U.S.Pat. No. 8,808,989, which claims the benefit of and priority to U.S.Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/891,162, filed Oct. 15, 2014and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/807,327, filed Apr.2, 2013. U.S. application Ser. No. 14/829,269 additionally claimspriority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/069,067,filed Oct. 27, 2014 and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No.62/079,604, filed Aug. 18, 2014. The contents of each of the aboveapplications are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to methods and apparatus for synthesizingpolynucleotides with a desired sequence and without the need for atemplate.

BACKGROUND

Most de novo nucleic acid sequencing is performed using well-establishedsolid-phase phosphoramidite-techniques. The phosphoramidite techniqueinvolves the sequential de-protection and synthesis of sequences builtfrom phosphoramidite reagents corresponding to natural (or non-natural)nucleic acid bases. Phosphoramidite nucleic acid synthesis islength-limited, however, in that nucleic acids greater than 200 basepairs (bp) in length experience high rates of breakage and sidereactions. Additionally, phosphoramidite synthesis produces toxicby-products, and the disposal of this waste limits the availability ofnucleic acid synthesizers, and increases the costs of contractoligonucleotide production. (It is estimated that the annual demand foroligonucleotide synthesis is responsible for greater than 300,000gallons of hazardous chemical waste, including acetonitrile,trichloroacetic acid, toluene, tetrahydrofuran, and pyridine. SeeLeProust et al., Nucleic Acids Res., vol. 38(8), p.2522-2540, (2010),incorporated by reference herein in its entirety). Thus, there is a needfor more efficient and cost-effective methods for oligonucleotidesynthesis.

SUMMARY

The invention provides improved methods for nucleic acid synthesis.Methods of the invention provide faster and longer de novo synthesis ofpolynucleotides. As such, the invention dramatically reduces the overallcost of custom nucleic acid synthesis. Methods of the invention aredirected to template-independent synthesis of polynucleotides by using anucleotidyl transferase enzyme to incorporate nucleotide analogs coupledto an inhibitor by a cleavable linker. Because of the inhibitor,synthesis pauses with the addition of each new base, whereupon thelinker is cleaved, separating the inhibitor and leaving a polynucleotidethat is essentially identical to a naturally occurring nucleotide (i.e.,is recognized by the enzyme as a substrate for further nucleotideincorporation).

In particular, the invention provides a renewable substrate fortemplate-independent nucleic acid synthesis. De novo synthesis beginswith a nucleic acid initiator that is bound to a solid support. In thepresence of a suitable enzyme, e.g., a polymerase, e.g., a terminaldeoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT), nucleotide analogs are added to thenucleic acid initiator in order to create an oligonucleotide. It ispreferable that the nucleotide analogs include removable terminatinggroups that cause the enzymatic addition to stop after the addition ofone nucleotide. A removable terminating group can be linked to the baseportion of the nucleic acid and/or to the 3′ hydroxyl of the nucleicacid. Deblocking of the terminating group and/or the 3′ blocking group,creates a new active site that is a substrate for the enzyme. Withsubsequent addition of a new nucleotide or nucleotide analog, theoligonucleotide is extended.

In some instances, the nucleic acid initiator comprises a 3′ moiety thatis a substrate for the enzyme. A releasing agent is used to decouple the3′ moiety, thereby releasing the oligonucleotide. The 3′ moiety, thenucleic acid initiator, and the solid support are reusable after therelease of the nascent oligonucleotide.

The invention additionally includes an apparatus that utilizes methodsof the invention for the production of custom polynucleotides. Anapparatus of the invention includes one or more bioreactors providingaqueous conditions and a plurality of sources of nucleotide analogs. Thebioreactor may be e.g., a reservoir, a flow cell, or a multi-well plate.The bioreactor may include a solid support having a nucleic acidinitiator and a cleavable 3′ moiety. Starting from the solid support,the polynucleotides are grown in the reactor by adding successivenucleotides via the natural activity of a nucleotidyl transferase, e.g.,a terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT) or any other enzyme thatelongates DNA or RNA strands without template direction. Upon cleavageof the linker, a natural polynucleotide is released from the solidsupport. Once the sequence is complete, the support is cleaved away, orthe 3′ moiety is contacted with a releasing agent, leaving apolynucleotide essentially equivalent to that found in nature. In someembodiments, the apparatus is designed to recycle nucleotide analogsolutions by recovering the solutions after nucleotide addition andreusing solutions for subsequence nucleotide addition. Thus, less wasteis produced, and the overall cost per base is reduced as compared tostate-of-the-art methods. In certain embodiments, a bioreactor mayinclude a microfluidic device and/or use inkjet printing technology.

Terminating groups may include, for example, charged moieties or stericinhibitors. In general, large macromolecule that prevent nucleotidyltransferase enzymes from achieving a functional conformation are usefulused to inhibit oligonucleotide synthesis. Such macromolecules includepolymers, polypeptides, polypeptoids, and nanoparticles. Themacromolecules should be large enough to physically block access to theactive site of the nucleotidyl transferase, not so large as tonegatively alter the reaction kinetics. The macromolecules are linked tonucleotide analogs using any of a variety of linkers, as describedbelow.

In embodiments using a 3′-O-blocked nucleotide analog, the 3′-O-blockinggroups are typically small and easily removed, thus allowing use withengineered enzymes having modified active sites. For example, the3′-O-blocking groups may comprise azidomethyl, amino, or allyl groups.

In some embodiments, oligonucleotide synthesis may include introductionof a 3′ exonuclease to the one or more synthesized oligonucleotidesafter each nucleotide analog addition, but before cleaving theterminating group. The terminating group blocks the 3′ exonuclease fromacting on any oligonucleotide that to which a nucleotide analog has beenadded, while oligonucleotides that have not successfully added an analogcontaining a terminator are removed by the 3′ exonuclease. In thismanner, the invention allows for in-process quality control and mayeliminate the need for post-synthesis purification.

Other aspects of the invention are apparent to the skilled artisan uponconsideration of the following figures and detailed description.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A shows a genus of deoxycytidine triphosphate (dCTP) analogshaving a cleavable terminator linked at the N-4 position;

FIG. 1B shows cleavage of the cleavable terminator from a dCTP analog ofFIG. 1A to achieve a “natural” dCTP and a cyclic leaving molecule;

FIG. 2A shows a genus of deoxyadenosine triphosphate (dATP) analogshaving a cleavable terminator linked at the N-6 position;

FIG. 2B shows cleavage of the cleavable terminator from a dATP analog ofFIG. 2A to achieve a “natural” dATP and a cyclic leaving molecule;

FIG. 3A shows a genus of deoxyguanosine triphosphate (dGTP) analogshaving a cleavable terminator linked at the N-2 position;

FIG. 3B shows cleavage of the cleavable terminator from a dGTP analog ofFIG. 3A to achieve a “natural” dGTP and a cyclic leaving molecule;

FIG. 4A shows a genus of deoxythymidine triphosphate (dTTP) analogshaving a cleavable terminator linked at the N-3 position;

FIG. 4B shows cleavage of the cleavable terminator from a dTTP analog ofFIG. 4A to achieve a “natural” dTTP and a cyclic leaving molecule;

FIG. 5A shows a genus of deoxyuridine triphosphate (dUTP) analogs havinga cleavable terminator linked at the N-3 position;

FIG. 5B shows cleavage of the cleavable terminator from a dUTP analog ofFIG. 5A to achieve a dUTP and a cyclic leaving molecule;

FIG. 6 shows an exemplary deoxycytidine triphosphate (dCTP) analoghaving a Staudinger linker connecting a blocking Asp-Asp molecule to theN-4 position of the deoxycytidine and subsequent cleavage of theStaudinger linker under aqueous conditions to achieve a dCTP and aleaving group;

FIG. 7A shows a genus of cytidine triphosphate (rCTP) analogs having acleavable terminator linked at the N-4 position;

FIG. 7B shows cleavage of the cleavable terminator from a rCTP analog ofFIG. 7A to achieve a “natural” rCTP and a cyclic leaving molecule;

FIG. 8A shows a genus of adenosine triphosphate (rATP) analogs having acleavable terminator linked at the N-6 position;

FIG. 8B shows cleavage of the cleavable terminator from an rATP analogof FIG. 8A to achieve a “natural” rATP and a cyclic leaving molecule;

FIG. 9A shows n genus of guanosine triphosphate (rGTP) analogs having acleavable terminator linked at the N-2 position;

FIG. 9B shows cleavage of the cleavable terminator from a rGTP analog ofFIG. 9A to achieve a “natural” rGTP and a cyclic leaving molecule;

FIG. 10A shows a genus of thymidine triphosphate (rTTP) analogs having acleavable terminator linked at the N-3 position;

FIG. 10B shows cleavage of the cleavable terminator from a rTTP analogof FIG. 10A to achieve a “natural” rTTP and a cyclic leaving molecule;

FIG. 11A shows a genus of uridine triphosphate (rUTP) analogs having acleavable terminator linked at the N-3 position;

FIG. 11B shows cleavage of the cleavable terminator from a rUTP analogof FIG. 11A to achieve a rUTP and a cyclic leaving molecule;

FIG. 12 shows an exemplary cytidine triphosphate (rCTP) analog having aStaudinger linker connecting a blocking Asp-Asp molecule to the N-4position of the cytidine and subsequent cleavage of the Staudingerlinker under aqueous conditions to achieve a rCTP and a leaving group;

FIG. 13 shows an exemplary terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT)mediated polynucleotide synthetic cycle, including: (a) incorporation ofa nucleotide triphosphate analog comprising cleavable terminator,dN*TP-OH, and (b) removal of the terminating blocking group (indicatedby *), thus enabling the next dN*TP-OH to be incorporated, wherein N=A,G, C, or T;

FIG. 14 shows an exemplary nucleotide analog with a cleavable linkercomprising a variable number of methylene bridges;

FIG. 15 shows an exemplary nucleotide analog with a cleavable linkercomprising a cysteine residue;

FIG. 16A shows an exemplary nucleotide analog with an anionic inhibitorcomprising a single phosphate group;

FIG. 16B shows an exemplary nucleotide analog with an anionic inhibitorcomprising two phosphate groups;

FIG. 16C shows an exemplary nucleotide analog with an anionic inhibitorcomprising three phosphate groups;

FIG. 17 shows an exemplary microfluidic polynucleotide synthesis device;

FIG. 18 shows an exemplary polypeptoid inhibitor suitable for use in theinvention;

FIG. 19 shows a flow-chart describing the use of a 3′ exonuclease todigest oligonucleotides that are not properly terminated betweenoligonucleotide synthesis cycles;

FIG. 20 illustrates synthesis of a de novo oligonucleotide usingnucleotide triphosphate analogs having a 3′-O-blocking group;

FIG. 21 shows four exemplary 3′-O-blocked nucleotide analogs that can beused for the synthesis of de novo oligonucleotides in conjunction with asuitable template-independent polymerase; and

FIG. 22 illustrates the incorporation of a reusable 3′ moiety into anucleic acid coupled to a solid support, growth of a nucleic acid usinga modified TdT, and release of the de novo oligonucleotide.

FIG. 23 shows the results of enzymatic installation of a 3′-poly-U tractwith TdT, followed by USER digestion of the tract.

FIG. 24 shows the results of USER digestion of an internal poly-U tractto produce a 5′-monodisperse cleavage product.

FIG. 25 illustrates solid-phase dephosphorylation and TdT extensionresults.

FIG. 26 shows an exemplary resin regeneration cycle.

FIG. 27 shows an exemplary index strand regeneration process.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The invention provides improved methods for synthesizingpolynucleotides, such as DNA and RNA, using enzymes and nucleic acidanalogs. Using the disclosed methods, specific sequences ofpolynucleotides can be synthesized de novo, base by base, in an aqueousenvironment, and without the use of a nucleic acid template.

Nucleotide analogs may have an unmodified 3′ hydroxyl, or may have a3′-O-blocking group or may have a blocker releasably attached to aphosphate. In any case, the blocking group is designed to not leavebehind substantial additional molecules, i.e., designed to leave behind“scarless” nucleotides that are recognized as “natural” nucleotides bythe enzyme. Thus, at the conclusion of the synthesis, upon removal ofthe last blocking group, the synthesized polynucleotide is chemicallyand structurally equivalent to the naturally-occurring polynucleotidewith the same sequence. The synthetic polynucleotide can, thus, beincorporated into living systems without concern that the synthesizedpolynucleotide will interfere with biochemical pathways or metabolism.

The process and analogs of the invention are used for the non-templatemediated enzymatic synthesis of oligo- and oligodeoxynucleotidesespecially of long oligonucleotides (<5000 nt). Products can be singlestranded or partially double stranded depending upon the initiator used.The synthesis of long oligonucleotides requires high efficiencyincorporation and high efficiency of reversible terminator removal. Theinitiator bound to the solid support consists of a short, single strandDNA sequence that is either a short piece of the user defined sequenceor a universal initiator from which the user defined single strandproduct is removed.

In one aspect, the disclosed methods employ commercially-availablenucleotidyl transferase enzymes, such as terminal deoxynucleotidyltransferase (TdT), to synthesize polynucleotides from nucleotide analogsin a step-by-step fashion. The nucleotide analogs are of the form:

NTP-Linker-Inhibitor

wherein NTP is a nucleotide triphosphate (i.e., a dNTP or an rNTP), thelinker is a cleavable linker between the pyridine or pyrimidine of thebase, and the inhibitor is a group that prevents the enzyme fromincorporating subsequent nucleotides. At each step, a new nucleotideanalog is incorporated into the growing polynucleotide chain, whereuponthe enzyme is blocked from adding an additional nucleotide by theinhibitor group. Once the enzyme has stopped, the excess nucleotideanalogs are removed from the growing chain, the inhibitor can be cleavedfrom the NTP, and new nucleotide analogs can be introduced in order toadd the next nucleotide to the chain. By repeating the stepssequentially, it is possible to quickly construct nucleotide sequencesof a desired length and sequence. Advantages of using nucleotidyltransferases for polynucleotide synthesis include: 1) 3′-extensionactivity using single strand (ss) initiating primers in atemplate-independent polymerization, 2) the ability to extend primers ina highly efficient manner resulting in the addition of thousands ofnucleotides, and 3) the acceptance of a wide variety of modified andsubstituted NTPs as efficient substrates.

In addition, the invention can make use of an initiator sequence that isa substrate for nucleotidyl transferase. The initiator is attached to asolid support and serves as a recognition site for the enzyme. Theinitiator is preferably a universal initiator for the enzyme, such as ahomopolymer sequence, and is recyclable on the solid support, the formedoligonucleotide being cleavable from the initiator.

Methods of the invention are well-suited to a variety of applicationsthat currently use synthetic nucleic acids, e.g.,phosphoramidite-synthesized DNA oligonucleotides. For example,polynucleotides synthesized using the methods of the invention are usedas primers for nucleic acid amplification, hybridization probes fordetection of specific markers, and for incorporation into plasmids forgenetic engineering. However, because the disclosed methods producelonger synthetic strings of nucleotides, at a faster rate, and in anaqueous environment, the disclosed methods also lend themselves tohigh-throughput applications, such as screening for expression ofgenetic variation in cellular assays, as well as synthetic biology.Furthermore, the methods of the invention will provide the functionalityneeded for next-generation applications, such as using DNA as syntheticread/write memory, or creating macroscopic materials synthesizedcompletely (or partially) from DNA.

The invention and systems described herein provide for synthesis ofpolynucleotides, including deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA) and ribonucleicacids (RNA). While synthetic pathways for “natural” nucleotides, such asDNA and RNA, are described in the context of the common nucleic acidbases, e.g., adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), thymine (T), anduracil(U), it is to be understood that the methods of the invention canbe applied to so-called “non-natural” nucleotides, including nucleotidesincorporating universal bases such as 3-nitropyrrole 2′-deoxynuclosideand 5-nitroindole 2′-deoxynucleoside, alpha phosphorothiolate,phosphorothioate nucleotide triphosphates, or purine or pyrimidineconjugates that have other desirable properties, such as fluorescence.Other examples of purine and pyrimidine bases includepyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidines, 5-methylcytosine (5-me-C), 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, xanthine, hypoxanthine, 2-aminoadenine, 6-methyl and otheralkyl derivatives of adenine and guanine, 2-propyl and other alkylderivatives of adenine and guanine, 2-thiouracil, 2-thiothymine and2-thiocytosine, 5-propynyl uracil and cytosine, 6-azo uracil, cytosineand thymine, 5-uracil (pseudouracil), 4-thiouracil, 8-halo (e.g.,8-bromo), 8-amino, 8-thiol, 8-thioalkyl, 8-hydroxyl and other8-substituted adenines and guanines, 5-halo particularly 5-bromo,5-trifluoromethyl and other 5-substituted uracils and cytosines,7-methylguanine and 7-methyladenine, 8-azaguanine and 8-azaadenine,deazaguanine, 7-deazaguanine, 3-deazaguanine, deazaadenine,7-deazaadenine, 3-deazaadenine, pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidine,imidazo[1,5-a]1,3,5 triazinones, 9-deazapurines,imidazo[4,5-d]pyrazines, thiazolo[4,5-d]pyrimidines, pyrazin-2-ones,1,2,4-triazine, pyridazine; and 1,3,5 triazine. In some instances, itmay be useful to produce nucleotide sequences having unreactive, butapproximately equivalent bases, i.e., bases that do not react with otherproteins, i.e., transcriptases, thus allowing the influence of sequenceinformation to be decoupled from the structural effects of the bases.

Analogs

The invention provides nucleotide analogs having the formulaNTP-linker-inhibitor for synthesis of polynucleotides in an aqueousenvironment. With respect to the analogs of the formNTP-linker-inhibitor, NTP can be any nucleotide triphosphate, such asadenosine triphosphate (ATP), guanosine triphosphate (GTP), cytidinetriphosphate (CTP), thymidine triphosphate (TTP), uridine triphosphate(UTP), nucleotide triphosphates, deoxyadenosine triphosphate (dATP),deoxyguanosine triphosphate (dGTP), deoxycytidine triphosphate (dCTP),deoxythymidine triphosphate (dTTP), or deoxyuridine triphosphate (dUTP).

The linker can be any molecular moiety that links the inhibitor to theNTP and can be cleaved. For example, the linkers can be cleaved byadjusting the pH of the surrounding environment. The linkers may also becleaved by an enzyme that is activated at a given temperature, butinactivated at another temperature. In some embodiments, the linkersinclude disulfide bonds.

Linkers may, for example, include photocleavable, nucleophilic, orelectrophilic cleavage sites. Photocleavable linkers, wherein cleavageis activated by a particular wavelength of light, may include benzoin,nitroveratryl, phenacyl, pivaloyl, sisyl, 2-hydroxy-cinamyl,coumarin-4-yl-methyl, or 2-nitrobenzyl based linkers.

Examples of nucleophilic cleavage sites include fluoride ion cleavablesilicon-oxygen bonds or esters which may be cleaved in a basic solution.Electrophilically-cleaved linkers may include acid induced cleavagesites which may comprise trityl, tert-butyloxycarbonyl groups, acetalgroups, and p-alkoxybenzyl esters and amides. In certain aspects, acleavable linker may include a cysteine residue as shown in FIG. 15.

The linker can be attached, for example, at the N4 of cytosine, the N3or O4 of thymine, the N2 or N3 of guanine, and the N6 of adenine, or theN3 or O4 of uracil because attachment at a carbon results in thepresence of a residual scar after removal of the polymerase-inhibitinggroup. The linker is typically on the order of at least about 10Angstroms long, e.g., at least about 20 Angstroms long, e.g., at leastabout 25 Angstroms long, thus allowing the inhibitor to be far enoughfrom the pyridine or pyrimidine to allow the enzyme to bind the NTP tothe polynucleotide chain via the attached sugar backbone. In someembodiments, the cleavable linkers are self-cyclizing in that they forma ring molecule that is particularly non-reactive toward the growingnucleotide chain.

In certain aspects, a cleavable linker may include a variable number ofmethylene bridges on the NTP or the inhibitor side of a disulfide bond,including, for example, 1, 2, 3, or 4 methylene bridges as shown inFIGS. 14 and 16A-C. These methylene bridges may be used to increase thespace between the NTP and the inhibitor. As noted above, the length ofthe cleavable linker may be selected in order to prevent the inhibitorfrom interfering with coupling of the NTP to the synthesizedpolynucleotide. In some embodiments of the invention, the distance ofthe charged group to the NTP plays an important role in theeffectiveness of inhibiting a subsequent nucleotide incorporation.

For example, in some embodiments using a charged moiety as an inhibitor,the charged moiety may be from about 5 to about 60 bonds away from theNTP. In some other embodiments, the charged moiety of the inhibitor maybe from about 10 to about 40 bonds away from the NTP. In some otherembodiments, the charged moiety of the inhibitor can be from about 10 toabout 35 bonds away from the NTP. In some other embodiments, the chargedmoiety of the inhibitor may be from about 10 to about 30 bonds away fromthe NTP. In some other embodiments, the charged moiety of the inhibitoris from about 10 to about 20 bonds away from the NTP. The number ofbonds between the charged moiety and the NTP may be increased byincluding additional methylene bridges.

The nucleotide analogs can include any moiety linked to the NTP thatinhibits the coupling of subsequent nucleotides by the enzyme. Theinhibitory group can be a charged group, such as a charged amino acid,or the inhibitory group can be a group that becomes charged dependingupon the ambient conditions. In some embodiments, the inhibitor mayinclude a moiety that is negatively charged or capable of becoming anegatively charged. For example, an inhibitor may include a chain ofphosphate groups (e.g., 1, 2, or 3, phosphates) as shown in FIGS. 16A-C,wherein additional phosphates increase the overall anionic charge of theinhibitor. In other embodiments, the inhibitor group is positivelycharged or capable of becoming positively charged. In some otherembodiments, the inhibitor is an amino acid or an amino acid analog. Theinhibitor may be a peptide of 2 to 20 units of amino acids or analogs, apeptide of 2 to 10 units of amino acids or analogs, a peptide of 3 to 7units of amino acids or analogs, a peptide of 3 to 5 units of aminoacids or analogs. In some embodiments, the inhibitor includes a groupselected from the group consisting of Glu, Asp, Arg, His, and Lys, and acombination thereof (e.g., Arg, Arg-Arg, Asp, Asp-Asp, Asp, Glu,Glu-Glu, Asp-Glu-Asp, Asp-Asp-Glu or AspAspAspAsp, etc.). Peptides orgroups may be combinations of the same or different amino acids oranalogs. In certain embodiments, a peptide inhibitor may be acetylatedto discourage errant bonding of free amino groups. The inhibitory groupmay also include a group that reacts with residues in the active site ofthe enzyme thus interfering with the coupling of subsequent nucleotidesby the enzyme. The inhibitor may have a charged group selected from thegroup consisting of —COO, —NO₂, —PO₄, —PO₃, —SO₂, or —NR₃ where each Rmay be H or an alkyl group. In other embodiments, the inhibitor moietydoes not comprise a —PO₄ group.

In certain aspects, a terminator or inhibitor may include a stericinhibitor group. Such a steric inhibitor group may allow for theNTP-linker-inhibitor (i.e., nucleotide analog) to be incorporated ontothe unblocked 3′ OH of an oligonucleotide, said incorporation beingcatalyzed by nucleotidyl transferase. The steric inhibitor group mayphysically block the incorporation of nucleotides or additionalnucleotide analogs onto the unblocked 3′ OH of the incorporatednucleotide analog. Steric inhibitors may also block 3′ endonucleasesfrom acting on a nucleotide analog and, accordingly, on oligonucleotidesto which an un-cleaved nucleotide analog has been incorporated.

Steric inhibitors can include, for example, chemical polymers,nanoparticles, poly-N-substituted glycines (peptoids), or proteins. Asteric inhibitor of the invention may be a variety of sizes including,e.g., greater than 20 Å, greater than 30 Å, greater than 40 Å, greaterthan 50 Å, greater than 60 Å, greater than 70 Å, greater than 80 Å,greater than 90 Å, greater than 100 Å, greater than 110 Å, greater than120 Å, greater than 130 Å, greater than 140 Å, or greater than 150 Å. Inpreferred embodiments, a steric inhibitor may be monodisperse orsubstantially monodisperse. Steric inhibitors may be water soluble andconformationally-constrained (i.e., of a rigid or semi-rigid form). Incertain aspects, a steric inhibitor will physically block access to theactive site of the relevant nucleotidyl transferase enzyme because ofthe size or the conformation of the inhibitor. In preferred embodiments,the steric inhibitor may comprise a non-natural bio-inspired polymersuch as a polypeptoid or a non-natural polypeptide.

In certain aspects, a self-assembling polypeptoid sequence may be usedas a steric inhibitor. Peptoid monomers are often based on anN-substituted glycine backbone. Because the backbone is devoid ofhydrogen bond donors, polypeptoids are readily processed while stillbeing able to form secondary structures such as helices. They alsoprovide the beneficial properties of allowing polarities and side chainssimilar to peptides, while being generally chemically and thermallystable. Self-assembling polypeptoid steric inhibitors according to theinvention may self-assemble single peptoid helices to form microspheresin the micrometer range of diameters including, 0.3 μm, 0.4 μm, 0.5 μm,0.6 μm, 0.7 μm, 0.8 μm, 0.9 μm, 1.0 μm, 1.5 μm, 2 μm, 2.5 μm, 3 μm, or3.5 μm, among others. In certain aspects, steric inhibitors may includepeptoids with C-α-branched side chains, N-Aryl side chains,N-1-naphthylethyl side chains, or other formations capable of formingstable helical structures. An example of a peptoid steric inhibitor isshown in FIG. 18. FIG. 18 illustrates a branched poly-N-methoxyethylglycine which may be used as a steric inhibitor according to theinvention. In certain embodiments, a steric inhibitor may include areactive group that is easily joined to a linker group, e.g., acleavable linking group as described herein.

In other embodiments, a steric inhibitor may comprise a polymer, such asa biocompatible polymer. The polymer may comprise blocks of differentpolymers, such that the blocks form a desired macroscopic structure,.e.g., a sphere when exposed to an aqueous environment. For example, thecopolymer may comprise blocks of hydrophilic and hydrophobic blocks sothat the polymer self-assembles into a micellar structure upon additionto water. In some embodiments, the hydrophobic blocks may be selectedfrom polycaprolactones (PCL), polydimethylsiloxanes (PDMS),polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA), or polylactides (PLA). The hydrophilicblocks may include polyethylene glycol (PEG) or other polyalcohol.

In other embodiments, the inhibitor may comprise a nanoparticle ofsufficient size to block the activity of a nucleotidyl transferase. Suchnanoparticles may comprise, e.g., gold, silver, silicon, cerium oxide,iron oxide, titanium dioxide, silicon nitride, silicon boride, orsilica, e.g., mesoporous silica. In other embodiments, the nanoparticlesmay comprise highly-ordered molecular structures, such as fullerenes,e.g., buckyballs and nanotubes, comprising carbon, or semiconductors.

Steric inhibitors may have no charge or may be positively or negativelycharged to provide compatibility with the nucleotide to which it islinked and with the nucleotidyl transferase enzyme so that the inhibitordoes not interfere with the incorporation reaction on the 5′ end of theNTP analog. Steric inhibitors may incorporate a variety of amino acidresidues in order to provide a desired conformation, charge, orattachment site.

An example of a nucleotide analog of the type NTP-linker-inhibitor isshown in FIG. 1A. The analog in FIG. 1A includes an inhibitory(-Asp-Asp-) group linked to the N⁴ position of dCTP through a disulfide(—S—S—) bond while providing an unblocked, unmodified 3′-OH on the sugarring. The linker is constructed such that all linker atoms (includingthe 2nd incorporation-inhibiting moiety) can be removed, therebyallowing the nascent DNA strand to revert to natural nucleotides. Asshown in FIG. 1B, an aqueous reducing agent, such astris(2-carboxyethyl) phosphine (TCEP) or dithiothreitol (DTT), can beused to cleave the —S—S— bond, resulting in the loss of the inhibitorfunction (deblocking). As shown in FIG. 1B, a self-cyclizing linker canbe incorporated, resulting in a cyclic oxidized tetrahydrothiopheneleaving group that is easily removed from the reagent solution at theconclusion of nucleotide synthesis.

Exemplary schemes for synthesizing dCTP analogs of FIG. 1A are shownbelow in Schemes 1A and 1B:

In a fashion analogous to Schemes 1A and 1B, nucleotide analogs of thetype NTP-linker-inhibitor can also be formed by attaching thelinker-inhibitor moiety to the N6 of adenine (FIG. 2), the N2 of guanine(FIG. 3), the N3 of thymine (FIG. 4), or the N3 of uracil (FIG. 5),thereby providing analogs of the “naturally-occurring” dNTPs, as well asa deoxyuracil nucleotide (dUTP). While it is unlikely that there will bewide use of a dUTP, the synthesis is straightforward based upon thechemistry.

The invention is not limited to the linking chemistry of Schemes 1A and1B, however, as carbamate, amide, or other self-eliminating linkagescould also be employed. For example, nucleotides can also be preparedwith Staudinger linkers, as shown in Scheme 2:

A deoxycytidine triphosphate (dCTP) analog created with a Staudingerlinker (Scheme 2) to an Asp-Asp blocking group is shown in FIG. 6. Asshown in FIG. 6, the Staudinger dCTP analog undergoes cleavage underaqueous conditions with the addition of azide and triphenylphosphine.The Staudinger analog shown in FIG. 6 is also suitable for nucleotideextension using nucleotidyl transferases, such as TdT, as describedabove and exemplified in FIGS. 1-5. While not shown explicitly in theFIGS., one of skill in the art can use Scheme 2 in conjunction with thesuitable reactant to produce other nucleotide analogs having Staudingerlinkers as needed for complete de novo nucleotide synthesis. In afashion analogous to FIG. 6, nucleotide analogs of Scheme 2 can beformed by attaching the Staudinger moiety to the N6 of adenine, the N2of guanine, the N3 of thymine, or the N3 of uracil, thereby providinganalogs of the “naturally-occurring” dNTPs, as well as a deoxyuracilnucleotide (dUTP).

The methodologies of Scheme 1 A can be used to produce correspondingribonucleotide analogs, e.g., as shown in FIGS. 7-10, by starting withthe appropriate ribonucleotide reactants. Ribonucleotide analogscomprising the Staudinger linker can also be created using Scheme 2 inorder to form the needed ribonucleotide analogs, including, e.g., CTPanalogs, as shown in FIG. 12. Furthermore, all of the ribonucleotideanalogs, i.e., C, A, T, G, U, can be formed using a reaction similar toScheme 2.

In other embodiments, a 3′-O-blocked nucleotide analog can be used alongwith a modified enzyme capable of incorporating 3′-O-blocked nucleotideanalogs into an oligonucleotide. Such modified enzymes will allow3′-O-blocked dNTP analogs to be used in a step-by-step method to extendan initiating nucleic acid into a user defined sequence (see FIG. 20).Furthermore, after each nucleotide extension step, the reactants can berecovered and recycled from the solid support back to the originalreagent reservoir. Once that step is complete, the 3′-O-blocking groupwill be removed, allowing the cycle to start anew. At the conclusion ofn cycles of extension-recover-deblock-wash, the full length, singlestrand polydeoxynucleotide will be cleaved from the solid support andisolated for subsequent use. A variety of 3′-O-blocked deoxynucleotides,may be used, but the choice of specific 3′-O-blocking groups is dictatedby: 1) the smallest possible bulk to maximize substrate utilization byTdT and 2) removal of the blocking group with the mildest and preferablyaqueous conditions in the shortest period of time.

A variety of 3′-O-modified dNTPs and NTPs may be used with the disclosedproteins for de novo synthesis. In some embodiments, the preferredremovable 3′-O-blocking group is a 3′-O-amino, a 3′-O-allyl or a3′-O-azidomethyl. In other embodiments, the removable 3′-O-blockingmoiety is selected from the group consisting of O-phenoxyacetyl;O-methoxyacetyl; O-acetyl; O-(p-toluene)-sulfonate; O-phosphate;O-nitrate; O-[4-methoxy]-tetrahydrothiopyranyl; O-tetrahydrothiopyranyl;O-[5-methyl]-tetrahydrofuranyl;O-[2-methyl,4-methoxy]-tetrahydropyranyl; O-[5-methyl]metrahydropyranyl;and O-tetrahydrothiofuranyl (see U.S. Pat. No. 8,133,669). In otherembodiments the removable blocking moiety is selected from the groupconsisting of esters, ethers, carbonitriles, phosphates, carbonates,carbamates, hydroxylamine, borates, nitrates, sugars, phosphoramide,phosphoramidates, phenylsulfenates, sulfates, sulfones and amino acids(see Metzker M L et al. Nuc Acids Res. 1994; 22(20):4259-67, U.S. Pat.No. 6,232,465; U.S. Pat. No. 7,414,116; and U.S. Pat. No. 7,279,563, allof which are incorporated by reference in their entireties).

FIG. 21 shows four exemplary 3′-O-blocked dNTP analogs, namely3′-O-azidomethyl-dATP, 3′-O-azidomethyl-dCTP, 3′-O-azidomethyl-dGTP, and3′-O-azidomethyl-dTTP. The 3′-O-blocked dNTP analogs can be purchasedfrom specialty suppliers, such as Azco Biotech, Oceanside, Calif.Corresponding 3′-O-blocked ribonucleotides can also be obtainedcommercially, thus enabling the creation of custom RNA oligonucleotides.

Enzymes

The methods of the invention employ nucleotidyl transferases to assemblethe nucleotide analogs into polynucleotides. Nucleotidyl transferasesinclude several families of related transferase and polymerase enzymes.Some nucleotidyl transferases polymerize deoxyribonucleotides moreefficiently than ribonucleotides, some nucleotidyl transferasespolymerize ribonucleotides more efficiently than deoxyribonucleotides,and some nucleotidyl transferases polymerize ribonucleotides anddeoxyribonucleotides at approximately the same rate.

Of particular import to the invention, transferases having polymeraseactivity, such as terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT), arecapable of catalyzing the addition of deoxyribonucleotides to the 3′ endof a nucleotide chain, thereby increasing chain length in DNAnucleotides. TdT will only catalyze the addition of 1-2 ribonucleotidesto the growing end of a DNA strand which could be useful in theconstruction of site specific DNA-RNA chimeric polynucleotides. Inparticular, calf thymus TdT, sourced from engineered E. coli, issuitable for use with the invention and available from commercialsources such as Thermo Scientific (Pittsburgh, Pa.). The amino acidsequence corresponding to calf TdT is listed in Table 1 as SEQ ID NO. 1.

TABLE 1 Amino Acid Sequence of Bovine TdT SEQ ID NO. 1:MAQQRQHQRL PMDPLCTASS GPRKKRPRQV GASMASPPHDIKFQNLVLFI LEKKMGTTRR NFLMELARRK GFRVENELSD SVTHIVAENNSGSEVLEWLQ VQNIRASSQL ELLDVSWLIE SMGAGKPVEI TGKHQLVVRTDYSATPNPGF QKTPPLAVKK ISQYACQRKT TLNNYNHIFT DAFEILAENSEFKENEVSYV TFMRAASVLK SLPFTIISMK DTEGIPCLGD KVKCIIEEII EDGESSEVKAVLNDERYQSF KLFTSVFGVG LKTSEKWFRM GFRSLSKIMS DKTLKFTKMQKAGFLYYEDL VSCVTRAEAE AVGVLVKEAV WAFLPDAFVT MTGGFRRGKKIGHDVDFLIT SPGSAEDEEQ LLPKVINLWE KKGLLLYYDL VESTFEKFKLPSRQVDTLDH FQKCFLILKL HHQRVDSSKS NQQEGKTWKA IRVDLVMCPYENRAFALLGW TGSRQFERDI RRYATHERKM MLDNHALYDK TKRVFLKAESEEEIFAHLGL DYIEPWERNA

The nucleotide sequence corresponding to calf TdT is listed in Table 2as SEQ ID NO. 2.

TABLE 2 Nucleic Acid Sequence of Bovine TdT SEQ ID NO. 2:ctcttctgga gataccactt gatggcacag cagaggcagc atcagcgtct tcccatggat ccgctgtgcacagcctcctc aggccctcgg aagaagagac ccaggcaggt gggtgcctca atggcctccc ctcctcatga catcaagtttcaaaatttgg tcctcttcat tttggagaag aaaatgggaa ccacccgcag aaacttcctc atggagctgg ctcgaaggaaaggtttcagg gttgaaaatg agctcagtga ttctgtcacc cacattgtag cagaaaacaa ctctggttca gaggttctcgagtggcttca ggtacagaac ataagagcca gctcgcagct agaactcctt gatgtctcct ggctgatcga aagtatgggagcaggaaaac cagtggagat tacaggaaaa caccagcttg ttgtgagaac agactattca gctaccccaa acccaggcttccagaagact ccaccacttg ctgtaaaaaa gatctcccag tacgcgtgtc aaagaaaaac cactttgaac aactataaccacatattcac ggatgccttt gagatactgg ctgaaaattc tgagtttaaa gaaaatgaag tctcttatgt gacatttatg agagcagcttctgtacttaa atctctgcca ttcacaatca tcagtatgaa ggatacagaa ggaattccct gcctggggga caaggtgaagtgtatcatag aggaaattat tgaagatgga gaaagttctg aagttaaagc tgtgttaaat gatgaacgat atcagtcctt caaactctttacttctgttt ttggagtggg actgaagaca tctgagaaat ggttcaggat ggggttcaga tctctgagta aaataatgtcagacaaaacc ctgaaattca caaaaatgca gaaagcagga tttctctatt atgaagacct tgtcagctgc gtgaccagggccgaagcaga ggcggttggc gtgctggtta aagaggctgt gtgggcattt ctgccggatg cctttgtcac catgacaggaggattccgca ggggtaagaa gattgggcat gatgtagatt ttttaattac cagcccagga tcagcagagg atgaagagcaacttttgcct aaagtgataa acttatggga aaaaaaggga ttacttttat attatgacct tgtggagtca acatttgaaa agttcaagttgccaagcagg caggtggata ctttagatca ttttcaaaaa tgctttctga ttttaaaatt gcaccatcag agagtagaca gtagcaagtccaaccagcag gaaggaaaga cctggaaggc catccgtgtg gacctggtta tgtgccccta cgagaaccgt gcctttgccctgctaggctg gactggctcc cggcagtttg agagagacat ccggcgctat gccacacacg agcggaagat gatgctggataaccacgctt tatatgacaa gaccaagagg gtatttctca aagcggaaag tgaagaagaa atctttgcac atctgggattggactacatt gaaccatggg aaagaaatgc ttaggagaaa gctgtcaact tttttctttt ctgttctttt tttcaggtta gacaaattatgcttcatatt ataatgaaag atgccttagt caagtttggg attctttaca ttttaccaag atgtagattg cttctagaaa taagtagttttggaaacgtg atcaggcacc ccctgggtta tgctctggca agccatttgc aggactgatg tgtagaactc gcaatgcattttccatagaa acagtgttgg aattggtggc tcatttccag ggaagttcat caaagcccac tttgcccaca gtgtagctga aatactgtatacttgccaat aaaaatagga aac

While commercially-available TdT is suitable for use with the methods ofthe invention, modified TdT, e.g., having an amino acid sequence atleast 95% in common with SEQ ID NO. 1, e.g., having an amino acidsequence at least 98% in common with SEQ ID NO. 1, e.g., having an aminoacid sequence at least 99% in common with SEQ ID NO. 1, may be used withthe methods of the invention. An organism that expresses a suitablenucleotidyl transferase may comprise a nucleic acid sequence at least95% in common with SEQ ID NO. 2, e.g., at least 98% in common with SEQID NO. 2, e.g., at least 99% in common with SEQ ID NO. 2. In someinstances, a modified TdT will result in more efficient generation ofpolynucleotides, or allow better control of chain length. Othermodifications to the TdT may change the release characteristics of theenzyme, thereby reducing the need for aqueous reducing agents such asTCEP or DTT.

For the synthesis of RNA polynucleotides, a nucleotidyl transferase likeE. coli poly(A) polymerase can be used to catalyze the addition ofribonucleotides to the 3′ end of a ribonucleotide initiator. In otherembodiments, E. coli poly(U) polymerase may be more suitable for usewith the methods of the invention. Both E. coli poly(A) polymerase andE. coli poly(U) polymerase are available from New England Biolabs(Ipswich, Mass.). These enzymes may be used with 3′unblocked reversibleterminator ribonuclotide triphosphates (rNTPs) to synthesize RNA. Incertain embodiments, RNA may be synthesized using 3′blocked, 2′blocked,or 2′-3′blocked rNTPs and poly(U) polymerase or poly(A) polymerase. Theamino acid and nucleotide sequences for E. coli Poly(A) polymerase andE. coli Poly(U) polymerase are reproduced below. Modified E. coliPoly(A) polymerase or E. coli Poly(U) polymerase may be suitable for usewith the methods of the invention. For example, an enzyme, having anamino acid sequence at least 95% in common with SEQ ID NO. 3, e.g.,having an amino acid sequence at least 98% in common with SEQ ID NO. 3,e.g., having an amino acid sequence at least 99% in common with SEQ IDNO. 3, may be used with the methods of the invention. An organism thatexpresses a suitable enzyme may comprise a nucleic acid sequence atleast 95% in common with SEQ ID NO. 4, e.g., at least 98% in common withSEQ ID NO. 4, e.g., at least 99% in common with SEQ ID NO. 4.Alternatively, an enzyme having an amino acid sequence at least 95% incommon with SEQ ID NO. 5, e.g., having an amino acid sequence at least98% in common with SEQ ID NO. 5, e.g., having an amino acid sequence atleast 99% in common with SEQ ID NO. 5, may be used with the methods ofthe invention. An organism that expresses a suitable enzyme may comprisea nucleic acid sequence at least 95% in common with SEQ ID NO. 6, e.g.,at least 98% in common with SEQ ID NO. 6, e.g., at least 99% in commonwith SEQ ID NO. 6.

TABLE 3 Amino Acid Seutience of E. coli Poly(A) polymerase SEQ ID NO. 3:MFTRVANFCR KVLSREESEA EQAVARPQVT VIPREQHAISRKDISENALK VMYRLNKAGY EAWLVGGGVR DLLLGKKPKD FDVTTNATPEQVRKLFRNCR LVGRRFRLAH VMFGPEIIEV ATFRGHHEGN VSDRTTSQRGQNGMLLRDNI FGSIEEDAQR RDFTINSLYY SVADFTVRDY VGGMKDLKDGVIRLIGNPET RYREDPVRML RAVRFAAKLG MRISPETAEP IPRLATLLND IPPARLFEESLKLLQAGYGY ETYKLLCEYH LFQPLFPTIT RYFTENGDSP MERIIEQVLKNTDTRIHNDM RVNPAFLFAA MFWYPLLETA QKIAQESGLT YHDAFALAMNDVLDEACRSL AIPKRLTTLT RDIWQLQLRM SRRQGKRAWK LLEHPKFRAAYDLLALRAEV ERNAELQRLV KWWGEFQVSA PPDQKGMLNE LDEEPSPRRR TRRPRKRAPR REGTAThe nucleotide sequence corresponding to E. coli poly(A) polymerase islisted in Table 4 as SEQ ID NO. 4.

TABLE 4 Nucleotide Seuuence of E. coli Poly(A) polymerase SEQ ID NO. 4:atttttaccc gagtcgctaa tttttgccgc aaggtgctaa gccgcgagga aagcgaggct gaacaggcagtcgcccgtcc acaggtgacg gtgatcccgc gtgagcagca tgctatttcc cgcaaagata tcagtgaaaa tgccctgaaggtaatgtaca ggctcaataa agcgggatac gaagcctggc tggttggcgg cggcgtgcgc gacctgttac ttggcaaaaagccgaaagat tttgacgtaa ccactaacgc cacgcctgag caggtgcgca aactgttccg taactgccgc ctggtgggtcgccgtttccg tctggctcat gtaatgtttg gcccggagat tatcgaagtt gcgaccttcc gtggacacca cgaaggtaacgtcagcgacc gcacgacctc ccaacgcggg caaaacggca tgttgctgcg cgacaacatt ttcggctcca tcgaagaagacgcccagcgc cgcgatttca ctatcaacag cctgtattac agcgtagcgg attttaccgt ccgtgattac gttggcggcatgaaggatct gaaggacggc gttatccgtc tgattggtaa cccggaaacg cgctaccgtg aagatccggt acgtatgctgcgcgcggtac gttttgccgc caaattgggt atgcgcatca gcccggaaac cgcagaaccg atccctcgcc tcgctaccctgctgaacgat atcccaccgg cacgcctgtt tgaagaatcg cttaaactgc tacaagcggg ctacggttac gaaacctataagctgttgtg tgaatatcat ctgttccagc cgctgttccc gaccattacc cgctacttca cggaaaatgg cgacagcccgatggagcgga tcattgaaca ggtgctgaag aataccgata cgcgtatcca taacgatatg cgcgtgaacc cggcgttcctgtttgccgcc atgttctggt acccactgct ggagacggca cagaagatcg cccaggaaag cggcctgacc tatcacgacgctttcgcgct ggcgatgaac gacgtgctgg acgaagcctg ccgttcactg gcaatcccga aacgtctgac gacattaacccgcgatatct ggcagttgca gttgcgtatg tcccgtcgtc agggtaaacg cgcatggaaa ctgctggagc atcctaagttccgtgcggct tatgacctgt tggccttgcg agctgaagtt gagcgtaacg ctgaactgca gcgtctggtg aaatggtggggtgagttcca ggtttccgcg ccaccagacc aaaaagggat gctcaacgag ctggatgaag aaccgtcacc gcgtcgtcgtactcgtcgtc cacgcaaacg cgcaccacgt cgtgagggta ccgcatga

TABLE 5 Amino Acid Seutience of E. coli Poly(U) polymerase SEQ ID NO. 5:GSHMSYQKVP NSHKEFTKFC YEVYNEIKIS DKEFKEKRAALDTLRLCLKR ISPDAELVAF GSLESGLALK NSDMDLCVLM DSRVQSDTIALQFYEELIAE GFEGKFLQRA RIPIIKLTSD TKNGFGASFQ CDIGFNNRLA IHNTLLLSSYTKLDARLKPM VLLVKHWAKR KQINSPYFGT LSSYGYVLMV LYYLIHVIKPPVFPNLLLSP LKQEKIVDGF DVGFDDKLED IPPSQNYSSL GSLLHGFFRFYAYKFEPREK VVTFRRPDGY LTKQEKGWTS ATEHTGSADQ IIKDRYILAIEDPFEISHNV GRTVSSSGLY RIRGEFMAAS RLLNSRSYPI PYDSLFEEA

The nucleotide sequence corresponding to E. coli poly(U) polymerase islisted in Table 6 as SEQ ID NO. 6.

TABLE 6 Nucleotide Seuuence of E. coli Poly(A) polymerase SEQ ID NO. 6:ggcagccata tgagctatca gaaagtgccg aacagccata aagaatttac caaattttgc tatgaagtgtataacgaaat taaaattagc gataaagaat ttaaagaaaa acgcgcggcg ctggataccc tgcgcctgtg cctgaaacgcattagcccgg atgcggaact ggtggcgttt ggcagcctgg aaagcggcct ggcgctgaaa aacagcgata tggatctgtgcgtgctgatg gatagccgcg tgcagagcga taccattgcg ctgcagtttt atgaagaact gattgcggaa ggctttgaaggcaaatttct gcagcgcgcg cgcattccga ttattaaact gaccagcgat accaaaaacg gctttggcgc gagctttcagtgcgatattg gctttaacaa ccgcctggcg attcataaca ccctgctgct gagcagctat accaaactgg atgcgcgcctgaaaccgatg gtgctgctgg tgaaacattg ggcgaaacgc aaacagatta acagcccgta ttttggcacc ctgagcagctatggctatgt gctgatggtg ctgtattatc tgattcatgt gattaaaccg ccggtgtttc cgaacctgct gctgagcccg ctgaaacaggaaaaaattgt ggatggcttt gatgtgggct ttgatgataa actggaagat attccgccga gccagaacta tagcagcctgggcagcctgc tgcatggctt ttttcgcttt tatgcgtata aatttgaacc gcgcgaaaaa gtggtgacct ttcgccgccc ggatggctatctgaccaaac aggaaaaagg ctggaccagc gcgaccgaac ataccggcag cgcggatcag attattaaag atcgctatattctggcgatt gaagatccgt ttgaaattag ccataacgtg ggccgcaccg tgagcagcag cggcctgtat cgcattcgcggcgaatttat ggcggcgagc cgcctgctga acagccgcag ctatccgatt ccgtatgata gcctgtttga agaagcg

As discussed above, the inhibitor coupled to the nucleotide analog willcause the transferase, e.g., TdT, to not release from the polynucleotideor prevent other analogs from being incorporated into the growing chain.A charged moiety results in better inhibition, however, researchsuggests that the specific chemical nature of the inhibitor is notparticularly important. For example, both phosphates and acidic peptidescan be used to inhibit enzymatic activity. See, e.g., Bowers et al.,Nature Methods, vol. 6, (2009) p. 593-95, and U.S. Pat. No. 8,071,755,both of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.In some embodiments, the inhibitor will include single amino acids ordipeptides, like -(Asp)₂, however the size and charge on the moiety canbe adjusted, as needed, based upon experimentally determined rates offirst nucleotide incorporation and second nucleotide incorporation. Thatis, other embodiments may use more or different charged amino acids orother biocompatible charged molecule.

Other methods of nucleotide synthesis may be used to build de novooligonucleotides in a template independent fashion using nucleotidyltransferases or modified nucleotidyl transferases. In one embodiment,the polymerase/transferase enzymes can be modified so that they ceasenucleotide addition when they encounter a modification to the phosphateof a 3′-unmodified dNTP analog. This scheme would require a deblockingreagent/reaction that modifies the phosphate end of the nucleotideanalog, which frees up the nascent strand for subsequent nucleotideincorporation. Preferred embodiments of this approach would usenucleotide analogs modified only at the phosphates (alpha, beta orgamma) although modifications of the purine/pyrimidine base of thenucleotide are allowed.

In some embodiments, it may be advantageous to use a 3′ exonuclease toremove oligonucleotides that have not been properly terminated with aninhibitor prior to subsequent nucleotide analog addition. In particular,the inhibitor of the nucleotide analog can be chosen to inhibit theactivity of nucleotidyl transferase and 3′ exonucleases, such that onlyproperly terminated oligonucleotides would be built up. Using thisquality control technique, the purity of the resulting oligonucleotidesequences would be improved. In some embodiments, use of such qualitycontrol measures can negate the need for post-synthesis purification.This technique is represented schematically in FIG. 19, where a 3′exonuclease is introduced after a wash step to remove excess nucleotideanalogs and prior to linker cleavage. Such a cleaning step, as shown inFIG. 19, will reduce the number of oligonucleotides that are of anundesired length and/or sequence.

Another embodiment for using non-template dependentpolymerase/transferase enzymes would be to using protein engineering orprotein evolution to modify the enzyme to remain tightly bound andinactive to the nascent strand after each single nucleotideincorporation, thus preventing any subsequent incorporation until suchtime as the polymerase/transferase is released from the strand by use ofa releasing reagent/condition. Such modifications would be selected toallow the use of natural unmodified dNTPs instead of reversibleterminator dNTPs. Releasing reagents could be high salt buffers,denaturants, etc. Releasing conditions could be high temperature,agitation, etc. For instance, mutations to the Loop1 and SD1 regions ofTdT have been shown to dramatically alter the activity from atemplate-independent activity to more of a template dependent activity.Specific mutations of interest include but are not limited toΔ₃384/391/392, del loop1 (386→398), L398A, D339A, F401A, andQ402K403C404→E402R403S404. Other means of accomplishing the goal of apost-incorporation tight binding (i.e., single turnover) TdT enzymecould include mutations to the residues responsible for binding thethree phosphates of the initiator strand including but not limited toK261, R432, and R454.

Another embodiment for using non-template dependentpolymerase/transferase enzymes is to use protein engineering or proteinevolution to modify the enzyme to accept 3-blocked reversibleterminators with high efficiency. Naturally occurringpolymerase/transferase enzymes will not incorporate 3′-blockedreversible terminators due to steric constraints in the active site ofthe enzyme. Modifying either single or several amino acids in the activesite of the enzyme can allow the highly-efficient incorporation of3′-blocked reversible terminators into a support bound initiator in aprocess completely analogous to that described above. Afterincorporation, the 3′-reversible terminator is removed with a deblockingreagent/condition thus generating a completely natural (scarless) singlestrand molecule ready for subsequent controlled extension reactions. Theenzyme contains amino acids close to the 3′-OH of the incoming dNTPwhich explains the propensity of TdT for incorporating ribonucleotidetriphosphates as readily as deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates; aminoacids including but not limited to those between (31 and β2 especiallyR334, Loop1, and those between α13 and α14, especially R454, are likelytargets for mutagenesis to accommodate the bulk of 3′-reversibleterminator groups and allow their efficient incorporation. In certainembodiments additional amino acid changes may be required to compensatefor alterations made in order to accommodate a 3′-reversible terminator.Another embodiment for using template-dependent polymerases is to usethe either 3′blocked or 3′unblocked dNTP analogs with a plurality ofprimer-template pairs attached to a solid support where the template isa nucleic acid analog that supports polymerase mediated primer extensionof any of the four bases as specified by the user.

In some embodiments, an engineered TdT is used to achieve stepwisesynthesis with 3′-O-blocked nucleotide analogs. It is possible to modelthe active site of the TdT protein using AutoDock (Molecular GraphicsLaboratory, Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, Calif.). Based uponthis calculation, it is predicted that modified TdTs, having changes atArg336 and Arg454 may have enzymatic activity against 3′-O-blockednucleotide analogs. It is thought that Gly452 and Ser453 exist in acis-peptide bond conformation (see Delarue et al., EMBO J., 2002;21(3):427-39, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety) and thatthe guanidinium group of Arg336 assists in the stabilization of thisconformation. The stability provided by Arg336 may help explain whysubstitutions at this position have a negative impact on the reactivityof modified TdT proteins. In some instances, the instability created bymodifying position 336 may be overcome by using proline to stabilizecis-peptide bond conformation. However, if Arg336 is substituted, e.g.,with alanine or glycine, the entire TGSR motif (positions 451, 452, 435,454) may also have to be modified to compensate for this change. Forexample, the TGSR motif may be modified to TPSR or TGPR. In anotherembodiment, substitutions at Arg454 to accommodate the steric bulk of a3′-O-blocking group may require additional modifications to the α14region to compensate for substitutions of glycine or alanine at Arg454.In other embodiments, substitutions for other amino acids in the α11region may be required to compensate for substitution to Arg336 eitherinstead of, or in addition to, modification of the GSR motif.

While modification to Arg336 and Arg454 may change the bindinginteractions of 3′-O-modified dNTPs, it may also be necessary to exploresubstitutions that would result in improved steric interactions of3′-O-modified dNTPs with TdT. Such steric modifications can also beexplored computationally. Residues Gly332, Gly333, Gly452, Thr451 andSer453 are also potential targets for substitution to allow the extrasteric bulk of a 3′-blocking group like 3′-O-azidomethyl or 3′-O-allyl.Residues that are within 1.2 nm of the 3′-OH such as Glu457, Ala510,Asp509, Arg508, Lys199, Ser196 Met192, or Leu161 may also potentiallyinterfere with the substrate utilization of a 3′-O-blocked dNTP and arethus targets for substitution in addition to or in combination withArg336 and Arg454. In addition to amino acid substitutions at positions508, 509 and 510, it may be necessary to delete amino acids in order toremove interference with a 3′-O-blocking group. Since those amino acidsare located near the C-terminus of the protein, and exist in arelatively unstructured region, they may be deleted singly oraltogether, either instead of or in combination with the modificationsdescribed above.

Another embodiment for using non-template dependentpolymerase/transferase enzymes can use protein engineering or proteinevolution to modify the enzyme to optimize the use of each of the fourdifferent nucleotides or even different modified nucleotide analogs inan analog specific manner. Nucleotide specific or nucleotide analogspecific enzyme variants could be engineered to possess desirablebiochemical attributes like reduced K_(m) or enhanced addition ratewhich would further reduce the cost of the synthesis of desiredpolynucleotides.

Solid State Synthesis

The methods of the invention can be practiced under a variety ofreaction conditions, however the orderly construction and recovery ofdesired polynucleotides will, in most cases, require a solid support onwhich the polynucleotides can be extended. When used in conjunction withthe NTP, linker, and inhibitor analogs discussed above, it is possibleto construct specific polynucleotide sequences of DNA, as well as RNA,by using, for example, TdT or poly(A) polymerase in an aqueousenvironment. As shown in FIG. 13, the TdT can be used to effect thestepwise construction of custom polynucleotides by extending thepolynucleotide sequence in a stepwise fashion. As discussed previously,the inhibitor group of each NTP analog causes the enzyme to stop withthe addition of a nucleotide. After each nucleotide extension step, thereactants are washed away from the solid support prior to the removal ofthe inhibitor by cleaving the linker, and then new reactants are added,allowing the cycle to start anew.

In certain embodiments, an additional quality control step may beincorporated in which the oligonucleotide or polynucleotide is exposedto 3′ exonuclease after the nucleotidyl transferase-mediated nucleotideanalog extension step and before inhibitor cleavage. A 3′ exonucleasedegrades oligonucleotide or polynucleotide strands with an unblocked 3′OH. An uncleaved inhibitor (e.g., a steric inhibitor) may physicallyblock the 3′ exonuclease from degrading a strand to which an uncleavednucleotide analog has been successfully incorporated. Such a qualitycontrol step degrades only the oligonucleotides or polynucleotides thathave unsuccessfully incorporated the desired nucleotide analog in theprior addition step, thereby eliminating any errors in the finishedsynthesized sequence. After 3′ exonuclease exposure, the enzyme may bewashed away before carrying on with the inhibitor cleavage step.

The 3′ exonuclease acts by shortening or completely degrading strandsthat have not successfully added the desired nucleotide analog. Strandsthat fail to be enzymatically extended at a given cycle will not have aterminal macromolecule-dNMP conjugate prior to the linker cleavage step.If a 3′-exonuclease is introduced at this stage, the full length strandcould be protected from degradation while “failure” strands will beshorted in length or potentially degraded completely to mononucleotidephosphates. The yield of long (>500 bases) synthetic DNA is dependent onhighly efficient reactions occurring at each and every cycle; both theenzymatic extension and the deblocking/self-elimination steps must occurat near quantitative yields. The introduction of a 3′-exonuclease afterthe enzymatic extension step but before the macromolecule terminatorcleavage step has a positive impact on the nascent strand purity if theextension efficiency is low (i.e., there are strands that are notextended and therefore possess a natural unmodified terminalnucleotide).

Conversely, a 3′-exonuclease step would have no impact on the quality ofthe synthesis if the deblocking/elimination step is less thanquantitative because those strands would still be protected by themacromolecule terminator and fail to extend during the next extensionstep. Thus the actual improvement of the quality of the synthesis withthe addition of a 3′-exonuclease step can only be experimentallydetermined and then an assessment made if it is worth the additionalcost and cycle time.

At the conclusion of n cycles of extension-remove-deblocking-wash, thefinished full-length, single-strand polynucleotide is complete and iscleaved from the solid support and recovered for subsequent use inapplications such as DNA sequencing or PCR. Alternatively, the finished,full-length, single-strand polynucleotide can remain attached to thesolid support for subsequent use in applications such as hybridizationanalysis, protein or DNA affinity capture. In other embodiments,partially double-stranded DNA can be used as an initiator, resulting inthe synthesis of double-stranded polynucleotides.

In some embodiments, a nucleic acid initiator will include a 3′ moietythat will release the synthesized oligonucleotide when in the presenceof a releasing agent. This feature is illustrated, generally, in FIG.22, where a nucleic acid initiator (5′-initiator-) is shown coupled to asolid state support (open circle) and a releasable 3′ moiety (openstar). In some embodiments the initiator is a single-strandedoligonucleotide, such as a dimer, trimer, tetramer, pentamer, hexamer,septamer, or octomer. Because the 3′ moiety attached to the initiator isa substrate for the enzyme, e.g., a TdT, e.g., a modified TdT, theenzyme can add additional nucleotides or nucleotide analogs in astepwise fashion. With each addition, the length of the synthesizedoligonucleotide increases. Once the oligonucleotide synthesis iscomplete, a releasing agent can be introduced to cause the 3′ moiety todecouple from the nucleic acid initiator. In some embodiments, the 3′moiety is a ribonucleotide, such as an A, C, G, or U ribonucleotide. Inother embodiments, the 3′ moiety is an abasic deoxyribose. In otherembodiments, the 3′ moiety is an abasic ribose. In other embodiments,the 3′ moiety is a non-nucleoside 5′-monophosphate. The releasing agentmay include a basic solution or a metal ion. For example, the releasingagent can be a concentrated NH₄OH solution, having a pH greater than 8,i.e., greater than pH 8.5, i.e., greater than pH 9.0, i.e., greater thanpH 9.5. In some embodiments, the releasing agent will be an enzyme, suchas a type II restriction nuclease. In some embodiments, the enzyme willuniquely interact with the nucleic acid sequence of the initiator, andlyse the synthesized oligonucleotide from the initiator, leaving behindthe initiator.

In an embodiment, the initiator is a nucleic acid hexamer and the 3′moiety is a ribonucleotide, such as adenosine. Once the oligonucleotidesynthesis is complete, e.g., using nucleotides comprising a cleavableterminator linked at the N-4 position, or nucleotides having a3′-O-blocked position, the oligonucleotide can be released by exposingthe bound oligonucleotide to an ammonium hydroxide solution of a pHaround 8. The basic solution containing the synthesized oligonucleotidescan then be separated from the solid substrate comprising the hexamerinitiator. The solid substrate is then washed and/or neutralized toprepare the initiator and 3′ moiety for fabrication of a newoligonucleotide. In some embodiments, the terminal ribonucleotide isregenerated prior to oligonucleotide synthesis with the use of aphosphatase or the 3′ phosphatase activity of T4 polynucleotide kinase.

In some embodiments, the solid support and nucleic acid initiatorincluding the 3′ moiety will be reusable, thereby allowing the initiatorcoupled to the solid support to be used again and again for the rapidsynthesis of oligonucleotides. Solid supports suitable for use with themethods of the invention may include glass and silica supports,including beads, slides, pegs, or wells. In some embodiments, thesupport may be tethered to another structure, such as a polymer wellplate or pipette tip. In some embodiments, the solid support may haveadditional magnetic properties, thus allowing the support to bemanipulated or removed from a location using magnets. In otherembodiments, the solid support may be a silica coated polymer, therebyallowing the formation of a variety of structural shapes that lendthemselves to automated processing.

The selection of substrate material and covalent linkage chemistrybetween initiator and substrate is limited only by the ability of theconstruct to withstand the synthesis conditions without loss ofinitiator. Preferred embodiments utilize substrates and linkers ofgreater chemical stability than the initiator so that the overallconstruct stability is that of the attached oligonucleotide and notdependent on the substrate. In some embodiments, initiators may besynthesized in a 5′ to 3′-direction from a material presenting surfacehydroxyl groups, though in preferred embodiments the initiator isinstead grafted to the substrate so that density and initiator qualitycan be precisely controlled.

The covalent linkage between the initiator and the substrate may be anybond which does not compromise the stability of the construct. Preferredembodiments may utilize couplings between oligonucleotides containingeither 5′-amine, 5′-hydroxyl, 5′-phosphate, 5′-sulfhydryl, or5′-benzaldehyde groups and surfaces or resins containing formyl,chloromethyl, epoxide, amine, thiol, alkene, or terminal C—F bonds onthe substrate.

In some embodiments, the initiator may contain elements forsequence-specific cleavage strategies, such as those utilizingrestriction enzymes, uracil specific excision reagent (USER), or anyvariety of sequence-specific nuclease. In other embodiments, theseelements may instead be enzymatically synthesized or added to theinitiator after it has been coupled to a resin. Such a scenario may bepreferred when, for example, the initiator is comprised of entirelythymidine in order to minimize potential side reactions with surfacefunctional groups during the coupling process.

FIG. 23 shows a solution-phase example where a short poly-uracil (U)tract is added to the 3′-end of an initiator using TdT. The resultantinitiator may then be used for further extension reactions as describedto generate the desired sequence. Upon completion of the synthesis, thenewly generated sequence may be cleaved at the internal poly-U tract toseparate the new sequence from the original initiator. The 30 nucleotideinitiator used is of the sequence 5′-TTATTATTATTATTAAAAAAGGCCAAAAAA. Thegel shown in FIG. 23 includes the initiator run in lane 1 while theinitiator after one or more additions of dUTP (i.e., the poly-uraciltract) was run in lane 2. The generated sequence was then subjected toUSER digestion for 10, 30, and 60 minutes and run in lanes 3, 4, and 5respectively.

FIG. 24 shows that the cleavage of a sequence containing an internalpoly-U tract produces a single product of homogenous length bearing a5′-phosphate. The cleavage process leaves a 3′-phosphate on theresin-bound initiator, which may be removed with treatment with T4polynucleotide kinase, alkaline phosphatase or other dephosphorylationprocess (See FIG. 25). The internal poly-U tract sequence cleaved in theexample depicted in FIG. 24 was of sequence5′-TTAATTAATUUUUGTGAGCTTAATGTCCTTATGT which, after USER digestion,resulted in a product of sequence 5′-phos-GTGAGCTTAATGTCCTTATGT. Theresulting product was run after 0, 10, 30, and 60 minutes of USERdigestion in lanes, 1, 2, 3, and 4 as shown in FIG. 24, indicating thesuccessful cleavage and homogenous length of the products. In lane 5, acontrol oligonucleotide of sequence GTGAGCTTAATGTCCTTATGT was run.

FIG. 25 shows an exemplary solid-phase dephosphorylation and TdTextension process. The chart depicts the absorbance of the TdT reactionmixture in a solid-phase extension. As dNTPs are added to theresin-bound initiator, they are depleted from solution, reducingabsorbance of the supernatant. Trace A shows the negligible rate of dNTPincorporation onto a resin where the 3′-end of the initiator is blockedwith a terminal phosphate. Trace B shows the rate of incorporation aftersuch an initiator is treated with shrimp alkaline phosphatase for15-minutes. Trace C shows the rate of dNTP incorporation under the sameconditions using an unblocked initiator.

After cleavage of the synthesized sequence, the resin may then be usedin another cycle of cleavage site installation, synthesis, productremoval, and regeneration. FIG. 26 provides an overview of an exemplaryregeneration cycle.

In other embodiments, the cleavage site installation may be used tohomogenize the enzymatic accessibility of the initiatoroligonucleotides. Each enzyme used during the enzymatic synthesis cyclehas its own steric footprint with potentially distinct optimal loadingsand spacing from the surface. This can produce unexpected behavior inregard to the kinetics of stepwise addition and yield from the enzymaticcleavage process. In some embodiments, repeated cycles of cleavage siteinstallation, cleavage, and regeneration may be conducted prior to theoligonucleotide synthesis so that the cleavage enzyme and thetemplate-independent polymerase are accessing the same population ofsurface oligonucleotides.

Some embodiments may install multiple different cleavage sitesthroughout a strand during synthesis. Upon digestion, a complex libraryof the strands located between the cleavage sites may be released fromthe resin. Such sequences can then be further amplified and used forenzymatic assembly processes by a skilled artisan. This approach may beuniquely suited to parallel synthesis schemes in order to producegreater varieties of sequence fragments with relatively few distinctlocations on a surface, or to avoid the synthesis of contiguous strandswhich risk secondary structure formation during synthesis.

In other embodiments, cleavage site installation may be used immediatelyafter each cycle of enzymatic extension to assist in the removal ofunreacted initiator sequences, analogous to the acetylation used inphosphoramidite-based oligonucleotide synthesis. Strands which areunextended during the addition cycle act as substrates for a poly-Utract, while extended initiators bearing a chain terminator do not. Atthe end of the synthesis cycle, a single USER digestion is conducted sothat the oligonucleotides are released from the support, and sequencescontaining failed additions are simultaneously digested to a shorterlength than the full-sized product. Failure sequences are also alike inthat they are now phosphorylated at their 3′-ends, rendering themunreactive to further enzymatic extension. The full-length sequences maythen undergo extension to append any element which will enable selectivecapture, isolation, or enrichment. Such elements may either beadditional homopolymer tracts, such as further poly-U tracts, which canbe isolated by hybridization-based approaches and subsequently digested,or biotinylated elements for non-covalent capture. This approachcompensates for the lack of suitable chromatographic techniques suitablefor long (150 nt+oligonucleotides), low sample quantities, or complexmixtures of sequences of varied lengths.

Further embodiments may employ cleavage site installations to assist inthe recycling of highly-indexed DNA-based data recording media. Anexample is shown in FIG. 27. In such cases, 5′-surface-immobilizedsequences are terminated with a short poly-A tract. Extension to producea terminal 3′-poly-U site of sufficient length will allow a hairpin tofold under appropriate conditions, so that the elements of the initiatorpreceding the poly-A stretch can be replicated using atemplate-dependent polymerase. The sequence can then be extended with anew homopolymer tract to leave a free 3′-terminus which can be used insubsequent data-writing operations. Upon completion of the write steps,the hairpin linker can then be digested with the USER enzyme to releasethe data strand, while leaving the template initiator to be regeneratedwith a 3′-dephosphorylation step, poly-U addition, and recopying of thetemplate strand. The use of homopolymer tracts in DNA-based datarecording is described in co-owned U.S. patent application Ser. No.15/994,335, incorporated herein by reference.

Synthesizers

To capitalize on the efficiency of the disclosed methods, an aqueousphase DNA synthesizer can be constructed to produce desiredpolynucleotides in substantial quantities. In one embodiment, asynthesizer will include four wells of the described NTP analogreagents, i.e., dCTP, dATP, dGTP, and dTTP, as well as TdT atconcentrations sufficient to effect polynucleotide growth. A pluralityof initiating sequences can be attached to a solid support that isdesigned to be repeatedly dipped into each of the four wells, e.g.,using a laboratory robot. The robot could be additionally programmed torinse the solid support in wash buffer between nucleotide additions,cleave the linking group by exposing the support to a deblocking agent,and wash the solid support a second time prior to moving the solidsupport to the well of the next desired nucleotide. With simpleprogramming, it is possible to create useful amounts of desirednucleotide sequences in a matter of hours, and with substantialreductions hazardous waste. Ongoing synthesis under carefully controlledconditions will allow the synthesis of polynucleotides with lengths inthe thousands of base pairs. Upon completion, the extension products arereleased from the solid support, whereupon they can be used as finishednucleotide sequences.

A highly parallel embodiment could consist of a series ofinitiator-solid supports on pegs in either 96 or 384 well formats thatcould be individually retracted or lowered so that the pegs can beindexed to contact the liquids in the wells in a controlled fashion. Thesynthesizer could thus consist of the randomly addressable peg device,four enzyme-dNTP analog reservoirs in the same format as the peg device(96 or 384 spacing), additional reagent reservoirs (washing, deblocking,etc.) in the same format as the peg device (96 or 384 spacing), and atransport mechanism (e.g., a laboratory robot) for moving the peg devicefrom one reservoir to another in a user programmable controlled butrandom access fashion. Care must be taken to avoid contaminating each ofthe four enzyme-dNTP reservoirs since the contents are reused throughoutthe entire synthesis process to reduce the cost of each polynucleotidesynthesis.

In alternative embodiments, the reagents (e.g., nucleotide analogs,enzymes, buffers) will be moved between solid supports, allowing thereagents to be recycled. For example a system of reservoirs and pumpscan move four different nucleotide analog solutions, wash buffers,and/or reducing agent solutions between one or more reactors in whichthe oligonucleotides will be formed. The reactors and pumps can beconventional, or the devices may be constructed using microfluidics.Because of the non-anhydrous (aqueous) nature of the process, no specialcare needs to be taken in the design of the hardware used to eliminateexposure to water. The synthesis process can take place with onlyprecautions to control evaporative loss. A highly parallel embodimentcould consist of a monolithic series of initiator-solid supports on pegsin either 96 or 384 well format that can be interfaced to a series ofwells in the same matching format. Each well would actually be areaction chamber that is fed by four enzyme-dNTP analog reservoirs andadditional reagent reservoirs (washing, deblocking, etc.) withappropriate valves. Provisions would be made in the fluidics logic torecover the enzyme-dNTP reactants in a pristine fashion after eachextension reaction since they are reused throughout the entire synthesisprocess to reduce the cost of each polynucleotide synthesis. In otherembodiments, a system of pipetting tips could be used to add and removereagents.

In certain aspects, polynucleotides may be synthesized usingmicrofluidic devices and/or inkjet printing technology. An exemplarymicrofluidic polynucleotide synthesis device is shown in FIG. 17 forillustrative purposes and not to scale. Microfluidic channels 255,including regulators 257, couple reservoirs 253 to a reaction chamber251 and an outlet channel 259, including a regulator 257 can evacuatewaste from the reaction chamber 251. Microfluidic devices forpolynucleotide synthesis may include, for example, channels 255,reservoirs 253, and/or regulators 257. Polynucleotide synthesis mayoccur in a microfluidic reaction chamber 251 which may include a numberof anchored synthesized nucleotide initiators which may include beads orother substrates anchored or bound to an interior surface of thereaction chamber and capable of releasably bonding a NTP analog orpolynucleotide initiator. The reaction chamber 251 may include at leastone intake and one outlet channel 259 so that reagents may be added andremoved to the reaction chamber 251. The microfluidic device may includea reservoir 253 for each respective NTP analog. Each of these NTP analogreservoirs 253 may also include an appropriate amount of TdT or anyother enzyme which elongates DNA or RNA strands without templatedirection. Additional reservoirs 253 may contain reagents forlinker/inhibitor cleavage and washing. These reservoirs 253 can becoupled to the reaction chamber 251 via separate channels 255 andreagent flow through each channel 255 into the reaction chamber 251 maybe individually regulated through the use of gates, valves, pressureregulators, or other means. Flow out of the reaction chamber 251,through the outlet channel 259, may be similarly regulated.

In certain instances, reagents may be recycled, particularly the NTPanalog-enzyme reagents. Reagents may be drawn back into their respectivereservoirs 253 from the reaction chamber 251 via the same channels 255through which they entered by inducing reverse flow using gates, valves,pressure regulators or other means. Alternatively, reagents may bereturned from the reaction chamber 251 to their respective reservoirs253 via independent return channels. The microfluidic device may includea controller capable of operating the gates, valves, pressure, or otherregulators 257 described above.

An exemplary microfluidic polynucleotide synthesis reaction may includeflowing a desired enzyme-NTP analog reagent into the reaction chamber251; after a set amount of time, removing the enzyme-NTP analog reagentfrom the reaction chamber 251 via an outlet channel 259 or a returnchannel; flowing a wash reagent into the reaction chamber 251; removingthe wash reagent from the reaction chamber 251 through an outlet channel259; flowing a de-blocking or cleavage reagent into the reaction chamber251; removing the de-blocking or cleavage reagent from the reactionchamber 251 via an outlet channel 259 or a return channel; flowing awash reagent into the reaction chamber 251; removing the wash reagentfrom the reaction chamber 251 through an outlet channel 259; flowing theenzyme-NTP analog reagent including the next NTP in the desired sequenceto be synthesized into the reaction chamber 251; and repeating until thedesired polynucleotide has been synthesized. After the desiredpolynucleotide has been synthesized, it may be released from thereaction chamber anchor or substrate and collected via an outlet channel259 or other means.

In certain aspects, reagents and compounds, including NTP analogs, TdTand/or other enzymes, and reagents for linker/inhibitor cleavage and/orwashing may be deposited into a reaction chamber using inkjet printingtechnology or piezoelectric drop-on-demand (DOD) inkjet printingtechnology. Inkjet printing technology can be used to form droplets,which can be deposited, through the air, into a reaction chamber.Reagent droplets may have volumes in the picoliter to nanoliter scale.Droplets may be introduced using inkjet printing technology at a varietyof frequencies including 1 Hz, 10, Hz, 100 Hz, 1 kHz, 2 kHz, and 2.5kHz. Various reagents may be stored in separate reservoirs within theinkjet printing device and the inkjet printing device may deliverdroplets of various reagents to various discrete locations including,for example, different reaction chambers or wells within a chip. Incertain embodiments, inkjet and microfluidic technologies may becombined wherein certain reagents and compounds are delivered to thereaction chamber via inkjet printing technology while others aredelivered via microfluidic channels or tubes. An inkjet printing devicemay be controlled by a computing device comprising at least anon-transitory, tangible memory coupled to a processor. The computingdevice may be operable to receive input from an input device including,for example, a touch screen, mouse, or keyboard and to control when andwhere the inkjet printing device deposits a droplet of reagent, thereagent it deposits, and/or the amount of reagent deposited.

In certain instances, a desired polynucleotide sequence may be enteredinto the computing device through an input device wherein the computingdevice is operable to perform the necessary reactions to produce thedesired polynucleotide sequence by sequentially depositing theappropriate NTP analog, enzyme, cleavage reagent, and washing reagent,in the appropriate order as described above.

After synthesis, the released extension products can to be analyzed byhigh resolution PAGE to determine if the initiators have been extendedby the anticipated number of bases compared to controls. A portion ofthe recovered synthetic DNA may also be sequenced to determine if thesynthesized polynucleotides are of the anticipated sequence.

Because the synthesizers are relatively simple and do not require thetoxic components needed for phosphoramidite synthesis, synthesizers ofthe invention will be widely accessible for research institutions,biotechnology companies, and hospitals. Additionally, the ability toreuse/recycle reagents will reduce the waste produced and help reducethe costs of consumables. The inventors anticipate that the methods andsystems will be useful in a number of applications, such as DNAsequencing, PCR, and synthetic biology.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

References and citations to other documents, such as patents, patentapplications, patent publications, journals, books, papers, webcontents, have been made throughout this disclosure. All such documentsare hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for allpurposes.

Equivalents

Various modifications of the invention and many further embodimentsthereof, in addition to those shown and described herein, will becomeapparent to those skilled in the art from the full contents of thisdocument, including references to the scientific and patent literaturecited herein. The subject matter herein contains important information,exemplification and guidance that can be adapted to the practice of thisinvention in its various embodiments and equivalents thereof.

1. A composition comprising a solid support and an oligonucleotide,wherein the 5′ end of the oligonucleotide is coupled to the solidsupport, and wherein the oligonucleotide comprises a sequence-specificcleavage element.
 2. The composition of claim 1 wherein theoligonucleotide comprises a 5′-amine, 5′-hydroxyl, 5′-phosphate,5′-sulfhydryl, or 5′-benzaldehyde group coupled to the solid supportcomprising formyl, chloromethyl, epoxide, amine, thiol, alkene, orterminal C—F bonds.
 3. The composition of claim 1 wherein theoligonucleotide is irreversibly coupled to the solid support.
 4. Thecomposition of claim 1 wherein the sequence-specific cleavage element isincorporated into the oligonucleotide after the 5′ end has beenirreversibly coupled to the solid support.
 5. The composition of claim4, wherein the sequence-specific cleavage element is incorporatedenzymatically.
 6. The composition of claim 1, wherein thesequence-specific cleavage element comprises a poly-U tract.
 7. Thecomposition of claim 1, wherein the support-coupled oligonucleotidecomprises an index element to act as a template during oligonucleotidestrand synthesis from a 3′ end of the support-coupled oligonucleotide.8. A method for synthesizing oligonucleotides on a reusable solidsupport, the method comprising: exposing a nucleic acid initiatorattached to a solid support to nucleotide analogs in the presence of apolymerase to create a first oligonucleotide, wherein the nucleic acidinitiator comprises a sequence-specific cleavage element; contacting thenucleic acid initiator with a releasing agent to cleave thesequence-specific cleavage element and release the first oligonucleotidefrom the nucleic acid initiator; dephosphorylating a 3′-end of the solidsupport-attached nucleic acid initiator; and enzymatically renewing thesequence-specific cleavage element.
 9. The method of claim 8 wherein thenucleic acid initiator comprises a 5′-amine, 5′-hydroxyl, 5′-phosphate,5′-sulfhydryl, or 5′-benzaldehyde group attached to the solid supportcomprising formyl, chloromethyl, epoxide, amine, thiol, alkene, orterminal C—F bonds.
 10. The method of claim 8 wherein the nucleic acidinitiator is irreversibly attached to the solid support.
 11. The methodof claim 8 wherein the sequence-specific cleavage element isincorporated into the nucleic acid initiator after a 5′ end of thenucleic acid initiator has been irreversibly coupled to the solidsupport.
 12. The method of claim 11 wherein the sequence-specificcleavage element is incorporated enzymatically.
 13. The method of claim8 wherein the sequence-specific cleavage element comprises a poly-Utract.
 14. The method of claim 8 wherein the nucleic acid initiatorcomprises an index element, the method further comprising: extending a3′ end of the nucleic acid initiator with complementary nucleotideanalogs to a 3′ sequence of the nucleic acid initiator to synthesize thefirst oligonucleotide under appropriate conditions to permit hairpinformation; extending the first oligonucleotide after hairpin formationusing the index element as a template.
 15. The method of claim 14wherein the 3′ sequence of the nucleic acid initiator is complimentaryto the sequence-specific cleavage element.
 16. The method of claim 14,further comprising incorporating spacer nucleotides into the firstoligonucleotide sufficient to create a single stranded 3′ end thereofsubsequent to the hairpin.
 17. The method of claim 8, furthercomprising: before contacting the nucleic acid initiator with areleasing agent, incorporating a second sequence-specific cleavageelement on a 3′ end of the first oligonucleotide to create a secondnucleic acid initiator and exposing the second nucleic acid initiator,attached to the first oligonucleotide, to nucleotide analogs in thepresence of a polymerase to create a second oligonucleotide, whereincontacting the nucleic acid initiator and the second nucleic acidinitiator with the releasing agent cleaves the sequence-specificcleavage element and the second sequence-specific cleavage element andrelease the first oligonucleotide and the second oligonucleotide fromthe nucleic acid initiator and the second nucleic acid initiator. 18.The method of claim 8, wherein the polymerase is a nucleotidyltransferase or a modified nucleotidyl transferase.
 19. The method ofclaim 8, wherein the polymerase is terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase(TdT) or a modified TdT.
 20. The method of claim 8, wherein thenucleotide analogs have an unmodified 3′-OH and a cleavable terminatinggroup, and wherein the cleavable terminating group blocks subsequentnucleotidyl transferase activity but results in a nucleotide substratefor nucleotidyl transferase upon cleavage of the terminating group.